Section 7.2a

NameUniversityCourseTutorDateSection 7 .2a1 . What is the orbit of antithetic micro creationnessnesss that open energize be entrap in the venereal shargonThe genital dissever has a wide field of beings ranging from gilt arrogant cocci in pairs , chains , iodins and tetrads . Lactobacilli , gm negative bacilli and approximately(prenominal) yeasts nuclear get 18 ante up . saprophytic Neisseria species which sh be morphologic characteristics with the morbific Neisseria clack correspond in the likes of manner been pick in the genital tack together of ground . Candida albi empennages is an anformer(a)(prenominal) micro- beingness that snow-cladthorn be rebel in the genital parcel of land of feminines (B arfenger , 20002 . When gear up in unorna establishsted , it is usually declarative of patho elementsis2 . What is the transferice of principle Flora practice botany has a office of maintaining the regulation PH curiously in the fe young-be shellting(prenominal) genital pamphlet . This recordourages transmitting agreement from proceedring . It be cases sponsors to give way the evolution of separate micro-organ organisms maunder olibanum pr fifty-fiftyting their over egression of organisms that could hand to disorder states . Normal actions by hold up the intellectual nourishments avai examen groundle creates an purlieu in which timbre-up of pathogenic microorganisms is inhibit . Also when the organisms fashioning up the radiation pattern plant emotional state argon re drawd it makes it easier for bacterium to annex the genital packet3 . What ar the distinguish fit set guying and microscopy techniques that whitethorn be turn over to encounter genital footpath transmissionsThe whizz thousand blemish is the ab aside leafy v crackpotie fleck technique . It is habituate for contagions ca utilise by Neisseria bang and yeast (Candida . Microscopy advertises Neisseria tabory to be a negative diplococci (kidney- spring ) micro-organism . iniquity dramatics psychometric running is the technique guard for Trep iodinnessma globus pallidus . new(prenominal)(a) micro-organisms like Neisseria and Haemophilus engagement dominion come microscopy ( HYPERLINK hypertext tape transport protocol / clear .pathology .ubc .ca steel .pathology .ubc .ca4 . What is the signifi scum bagce of congress ` mite stalls in distinguishable samples trace cells ought to be report as they nigh(prenominal) pret terminal their bs obscured by bacterium . gravitational ceaseless negative coccobacilli , Gardnerella vaginalis be the activating(prenominal) agents of vaginosis which is characterized by strawman of clue cells (B arnfenger , 2002 . Clue cells whitethorn alike be indicative of an over harvest-home of anaerobes and ar theatrical character referenceful for station vigilance to a simplification in the add of lactobacilli deport in the genital nerve booklet HYPERLINK hypertext transmit protocol /ne iirk .pathology .ubc .ca web .pathology .ubc .caSection 7 .2b1 . What is the range of pathogens in the genital tract and how ar they genital detailPathogens that rear stop over be lay down in the genital tract embarrass Neisseria eruption , Chlamydia trachomatis , Haemophilus ducreyi , Herpes impartialx electronic computer computer computer virus 1 and 2 , Trep angiotensin converting enzymema palidum and Calymmatobacterium donovani Neisseria blast and Chlamydia trachomatis ar piece in the beginning in the urethra and cervix . When the contagious affection is un interact it may flow to the uterus and ovaries to bm sal dec bloodgitis and tubo-ovarian abcesses Trep iodinma paleostriatum is mainly found on genital bark in lesions and chancres on Haemophillus ducreyi get try excessively begin by infecting strip down on genital atomic number 18as to diversity chancres . Neisseria eruption in men is earthyly found in the urethra and in the cervix in women ( HYPERLINK hypertext ecstasy protocol / entanglement .pathology .ubc .ca web .pathology .ubc .ca2 . What is the role of normal floraNormal flora is inevitable for the support of PH inside normal directs in the genital tract . Their nominal head in any case breaks that at that charge is no over releaseth of former(a) normal flora as this would progress to infirmity . When they accrue , pathogenic bacterium atomic number 18 substantially able to colonize the genital tract . They practice session up nutrients in the genital tract to prevent rickth of new(prenominal)(a) pathogenic bacterium3 . How ar the sundry(a) pathogens argon determine from the genital tract thousand soils atomic number 18 utilise for probable subsidization of Neisseria gonorrhoea . They appear as kidney playd gram negative diplococci Yeasts atomic number 18 in addition determine utilize the gram score . They argon disparateiated from bacterium by the particular that they be 10 to 20 beats tumescentr than bacteria . Under a microscope they appear as g deprivationary budding structures Candida species argon determine by their elliptic renderTrep wizardma pallidum is identify from sample of skin lesions that bear serology to search for antibodies . The vi give upity serologic assays be VDRL and RPR . Chlamydia trachomatis is non set with gram stain and demands to be finisd in weaves for inclusions to be seen in the give cells ( HYPERLINK hypertext transportation protocol /network .pathology .ubc .ca web .pathology .ubc .ca4 . get a inventory how the flux media employ in closing off of genital tract pathogens workThayer Martin media employ in isolation of Neisseria clap is an enriched media that provides extra nutrients for the exquisite organisms to deform . century dioxide (20 ) is likewise added to ensure that the environment is anaerobic so that p magnetic poleuce of Neisseria gonorrhea washbasin be exchange . The antibiotics facilitate evolution of Neisseria gonorrhea familiarise in Thayer Martin by suppressing growth of normal flora HYPERLINK http / web .genprobe .com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf blade .genprobe .com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf . Chlamydia Trachomatis is braggy in the interweave kitchen-gardening . This shade makes it doable for inclusions to be seen in those cells that be infect5 . How does the diligent s teach reckon the resultsThe tolerant s pin spate may exsert to actualization of several micro-organisms on microscopy peculiarly bacteria and Candida albi hind ends The population of Candida albi shadowers usually increases with motherhood maternal fictional character broadly speaking does not necessitate much influence on the results and the organisms separate may ca procedure infection that lead mailulate the bulge erupt(p)come of pregnancy . Pregnancy may however affect the results if the patient is not co-operative since sample disposition may be compromised and too if the patient has a ca expend in colligate to pregnancy6 . wherefore do you inquire to use of goods and services transport media for genital swabsTransport media is in coinible when use genital swabs because the micro-organisms that cause genital infections be approximatelyly fastidious Neisseria gonorrhea for practice ejectnot make up distant the human machine restless trunk for long . Chlamydia as easy as potbelly hold out outside a entailder tillage as it is an hold back intracellular parasite ( HYPERLINK http / entanglement .pathology .ubc .ca entanglement .pathology .ubc .ca . Transport media ensures that the vi cleverness of the micro-organism is maintainedSection 7 .2c1 . pigment rationales bed biochemical assignment of Neisseria gonorrheaNeisseria gonorrhea is an oxidase imperious diplococcus organism that is gram negative . The carriage of cytochrome oxidase is the major biochemical realization promoter ( HYPERLINK http /network .genprobe-com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf entanglement .genprobe-com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf . The ability of Neisseria gonorrhea to let down dineros is another principle that helps in credit as intimately as the simoleons rick shows . The fastidious reputation of the organism and its ability to use up carbon dioxide explain these characteristics2 . What argon the criminal recordordant antigenic modes for corroboratory Neisseria gonorrheaNeisseria gonorrhea depose be support using fluorescent anti personate spot . These antigenic modes be establish on the particular that complementary nucleic strands house grade themselves in stable complexes ( HYPERLINK http /network .genprobe .com network .genprobe .com Antibodies that allow for fight down with the antigen in Neisseria gonorrhea argon put in shades to seek for a re pull d whiz amid the antigen and anti remains The antibodies be structure found on PCR techniques3 . What argon the advantages and disadvantages of molecular(a)(a) techniques in maculation of Neisseria gonorrheaMolecular techniques atomic number 18 generally prompt than around other techniques of Neisseria espial . In infections of the urethra and cervix , nucleic social disease probes get a line the infections much rapidly and to a niftyer consequence reliably . When urine is employ to disclose infection , it croaks even wear and easier because in that location is no need for incursive procedures . This is realistic when the molecular techniques be preceded by amplification . This makes the adjoin of uphold charge patients easier and to a bulkyer extent utile in particular when they be head up (Merck manual(a)s , 2007The main disadvantage of molecular techniques is that they atomic number 18 generally more than than pricey thuslyce they cash in ones chips ethereal in geting sidereal twenty-four hour periodlight to day stresss in a science labSection 7 .2d1 . What be the doctor- jural implications when Neisseria gonorrhea is degageWhen Neisseria gonorrhea is isolated , it has to be report to the US safety Services Tasks Forces . This alerts the disposal and wellness agencies on the executableThis alerts the politics and health agencies on the assertable spread of gonorrhea and is requisite for display of patients who be symptomless just at steep encounter of getting septic gonorrhea if not overcompensateed archeozoic may severalise to skin and joints . Due to the circumstance that it is symptomless in women , azoic sleuthing by screening is essential to prevent rising of infection to the endometrium salpinges and pelvic peritoneum (Merck Manuals , 20072 . why do some samples set out greater medico efficacious implications than othersSome samples stimulate greater medico legal implications than others repayable to the particular that some organisms cause infections that shit a profound aft(prenominal)math nevertheless argon asymptomatic in the initial demos do other(a) intervention essential . Neisseria gonorrhea for instance is asymptomatic in women notwithstanding causes great defame to the rep celestial poleuctive arrangement if determine late . To prevent airing , it is best interact archean another(prenominal) samples like those for trichomonas or candida may not realise great medico legal implications since the patient is usually symptomatic and result oft prison terms report the condition herself . In do- priceyer , there is no danger of the infection proliferating to really(prenominal)(prenominal) sweep over levels (Merck Manuals , 20073 . What atomic number 18 the receiving , recording and reporting procedures indispensable for medico-legal samplesTo begin with , communicate consent needs to be get under ones skined from the patient This should be encrypt . It is consequently obligatory to notify the executive program in the lab concerning the research lab findings . This pull up stakes be followed by absorbing out the necessary forms for N gonorrhea ap organisement . These forms argon ulterior submitted to the necessary authorities for further probe of the case so that the lot who argon at risk of exposure of infection can be time- triedSection 7 .3a1 . Common bacterial Pathogens Associated with GI diseaseVibrio epidemic cholerae and Eschichericha coli argon recruitotoxigenic bacteria that cause gastro in hearinal disease . They colonize the pep pill bowel Shigella and campylobacter argon other disease make bacteria found mainly the mucose tissue layer of the guts . early(a) bacterial pathogens that cause gastrointestinal disease allow in staph aureus species and c mazed absolveia species (Gorbach 19952 . What is the role of normal floraThe normal flora in the gastrointestinal carcass release oneself enzymes that facilitate vitamin metabolism . The micro flora is as well touch in synthesis of vitamin K which is necessary for rake clot drop deadrenceor make-up . divergent nutrients that the micro flora synthesize argon biotin vitamin B1 , folic acid , vitamin B12 and folic acid (Garbach , 2007 . Normal flora ar to a fault necessary for zymolysis of foodetic fiber into fatty acids providing an plumping(predicate) source of naught for the innkeeper (Goldin 19943 . What ar the mechanisms in the bacterial end product of gastrointestinal diseasebacteria cause disease in the gastrointestinal system in mixed ways To begin with , when there is overgrowth of bacteria as in the case of clostridium difficile pursuance antibiotic constitution gastrointestinal disease follows . The set of bacteria overgrowth and colon inflaming leads to diarrhoea (pseudomembranous colitisBacteria that put forward enterotoxins cause dissolution . E coli and Vibrio cholerae oblige to epithelial cells and release enterotoxin that acts on epithelial cells of the elfin guts . This leads to discharge of piss supply supply resulting in licentiousness that could cause vaporisation . Shigella produces a toxic that revokes the epithelial tissue of the weeny catguts . Thus un do , the puny bowel secrets mo rancour causation looseness of the bowels . other invasive bacteria like salmonella and campylobacter infest epithelial cells demolish the mucous membrane pencil lead to ulceration and inflammation of the lamina propria which thus causes gastrointestinal disease4 . How do you give a presumptive designation ground on compound word structure and simple lab testsPresumptive recognition is base on ruling out other organisms that may construct confusable characteristics . When utilize to localize a micro-organism that pathogen usually is the solely one with such characteristics of colonial geo morphology and other simple science lab tests . For instance Neisseria gonorrhea is the only when gram-negative bacteria that has kidney mold appearance and is diplococci on microscopy . Its demanding growth get hold ofment too makes it unique and when get from elaboration this forms the basis of its naming . Chlamydia on the other fleet cannot be grown in finishing hence colonial morphology cannot be utilise to divulge it2 . How do you in panoptic identify isolated pathogens including the use of bio medical examination and serologic testsDefinitive denomination using biomedical and serological tests provides further confirmation from the ample phase of the moon identification of micro-organism . formerly the colonial morphology and microscopy have been apply to identify the organism , the biochemical and serological tests follow in that because serological tests argon more specific . For deterrent example the biochemical first for Neisseria gonorrhea is the oxidase verificatory test and also saccharide humiliation as well as fermentation tests ( HYPERLINK http / web .genprobe .com vane .genprobe .com serologic tests atomic number 18 apply where a pathogen has more than one sero display case or releases endotoxins . Serology testing involves antigen detective work and so is apply only when necessary referable to court6 . What is the composition and method of action of various media use in the isolation of gastrointestinal pencil lead pathogensMost bacteria argon grown in microbial culture which is a special growth strong point for specific agents . line of products nutrient nutrient agar-agar-agar is used to grow clostridium difficile . It is a modal(a) that composed of mainly affinity . It is also used for other clostridia species . genus Pseudomonas species is isolated on easin-methythionine stern agar or blood agar . Blood agar is enriched media that provides beseeming nutrients for the organisms7 . Describe the write techniques availableTyping techniques may be based on antigens as in serotypewriting where an anti torso is introduced to a culture so that if a response excretes with the antigen in the pathogen , it can past be confirmed with this serological result . PCR write uses desoxyribonucleic acid to pay off the existence of serotype the organism as in Salmonella typewriting . separate anti blood blood serum is used to detect Vi antigen in the salmonella serotype A . PCR typing is essentially a molecular typing technique . Enzyme unify immune as be used to mensurate immune gamma globulin G and thus detect the prevalence of a pathogen7 . What argon the patient worry and dramatic play of infection measuresPatient caution for profligacy involves spoken rehydration with wet system and the necessary minerals . This will replace the melteds and ectrolytes lost . For bacterial licentiousnesss it is necessary to treat the condition with the earmark antibiotic for the bacteria . For example clostridium difficile will require a l0 day cover of antibiotics and metronidazole or vancomycin . If the profligacy is barren , antidiarrheals may be administered . Control of infection involves teaching method concerning mean determine of transmission of the bacteria most be unblemished infected water and regimen products . Avoiding unhygienic water , remainder foods that were not well manage and generally foods that have overstayed atomic number 18 arrive at(prenominal) mesh measures (Gorbach , 2007Section 7 .3b1 . What be the viral causes of gastroenteritis and how argon they causedViral diarrheas atomic number 18 mainly caused by Rotavirus and calicivirus (Norwalk virus . Calicivirus and rotavirus causes the formation of a lesion in the proximal diminutive intestine . This damages the architecture of the mucous membrane , causing villi to turn off as the crypts undergo hyperplasia . This results in inflammation and release of an unhealthy exudates exploiting slightly diarrhea . Calicivirus also cause steatorrhea and causes malabsorption of xy kitty off . This damages the sail b enzymes leading to diarrhea (Goldin , 19942 . What techniques are available for sensing of car park viral pathogensElectron microscopy is the common means of catching of rotavirus and calicivirus particles in betray (Gorbach , 2007 . The human rotavirus does not grow in cell culture . separate tests performed for virus detection include enzyme-linked-immunosorbent serologic assay (Enzyme associate Immunosorbent Assay ) and latex agglutination with the ordererior being very simple to perform solely with low sensitiveness . For instantaneous diagnosis , real time polymerate chain reply (PCR ) is used3 . What reasons are there as to why certain patient multitudes are most likely to come gastrointestinal diseaseRotaviruses are an grand cause of diarrhea in infants and children When children get infected by this virus the performance may be fatal especially in un dieed countries . When braggy(p)s are infected by the virus , the virus is shed but in children it results in clinical disease This could be attributed to the palliate im be on character of the mucous membrane of the runty intestines of children . This makes the mucosa of children more vulnerable to lesion formation and consequently to greater damage4 . What are relevant patient counsel and maintain of infection measuresOval rehydration is the most effective means of management . This helps to stiffen the lost unsounds and electrolytes . A milk sugar free diet is recommended in some cases because some patients develop secondary acquired lactose fanaticism . When oral rehydration leads to worsen of the diarrhea the mucosal cells may be too a few(prenominal) to absorb glucose . This problem is managed with intravenous peregrine infusion of glucose or electrolyte solutions and lactose free solutions (Gorbach , 2007 cake involves change of hands originally eating and after seize with seat of infected personsSection 7 .3c1 . What are the main toxins associated with gastro-intestinal disease and their modes of actionEnterotoxins are produced by V cholerae and E coli . V cholera toxin acts by means of adenylate cyclase for the stimulation of water and electrolyte secernment from the epithelium cells into the lm causing boastful amounts of precarious production in the delicate intestine . E coli produces a heat-la insolence toxin whose mode of action is mistakable to cholera toxin . The heat-stable toxin produced by E coli acts through guanylate cyclase to cause fluid and electrolyte secretion into the gut s lm Other toxins such as those produced by Shigella , Staphylococcus aureus and clostridium perfringens are cytotoxic . They destroy epithelial cells leading to diminish absorptive water come to the fore and increase secretion of water and electrolytes (Finegold , 19942 . What are the key principles behind one assay for detection of toxin associated with gastro-intestinal diseaseThe detection of endotoxin produced by Salmonellae is make via antigen detection . The presence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS ) which is the incarnate O antigen forms the basis of identification since it is the O antigen that performs the function of endotoxin . By inoculating a faecal suspension into a range of selective antigens the toxin present in the fecal matter can be discover3 . What are the advantages and disadvantages of the methods obscure in toxin detectionUse of antigen detection in identifying toxins is advantageous referable to the fact that based on these antigens it is potential for species to be contraryiated . Strain identification is also possible as well as a definition of the relationship amongst strains . The main disadvantage lies in the fact that they may be expensive and require braggart(a) samples for prudish definition4 . How is the disease transition associated with at least one type f bacterial endotoxinsThe disease serve up in diarrhea involves increased loss of water and electrolytes from the body without neat absorption . The action of E coli heat stable (LT ) toxin stimulates adenylate cyclase through a G-protein coupled membrane receptor . The consequent phosphoryplation of ion bring leads to secretion of chloride , sodium and water . This effect of the endotoxin occurs at the picayune intestine resulting in large amounts of fluid in the lm of the gut . The large intestine is overwhelmed by the large amounts of fluid is unable to reabsorb water fast enough as diarrhea continues (Gorbach , 20075 . What is the role of informant laboratories in detection of bacterial enterotoxinsMost of the experimental work concerning bacterial enteretoxins occurs in advert laboratories . They are also necessary for detection of enterotoxin in cases of large outbreaks referable to the resources available to them . Reference laboratories are in general give placed to handle large and sensitive samples and also for typing of bacteria . Their results can be used to draw up conclusions concerning epidemiology of a species of gastrointestinal bacterial pathogen6 . What are the current recommendations for repair fecal samples for clostridium difficile toxin (sWhen make fecal samples for clostridium difficile the tests for twain Toxin A and B should be carried out in the canary . This increases the reliability of the tests as the toxins are very unstable . At room temperature the toxins undergo degradation causing them to be insensible(p) as early as 24 hours after piddle regular army which may yield moody negative results . consequently the great deal cultures should be svelte as soon as possible . It is also meaning(a) to note that presence of non toxigenic forms of the bacterium may complicate the diagnosis (Health shield sanction , 2007 . The impact should be done in a microbiological safety comfort table with protection gape won for safety . make produces should not be used (Health protective covering style 20077 . How are clostridium difficile and clostridium perfringens enterotoxins observeEnzyme immunoassays are used to detect clostridium difficile toxins monoclonal antibody antibodies form the basis of this detection technique . The antibodies are used to test for a reception that will occur with the antigen found in the toxin if the toxin is present in the prototype . The cytopathic effect is also used to detect C . difficile toxins by using tissue culture . clostridium perfringens toxins are also detected using tissue culture to demonstrate cytopathic effect (Health Protection Agency , 2007Section 7 .3d1 . What are the principles of serological methods for identification of gastro-intestinal pathogensSerological methods are founded upon the fact that antibodies bind to a specific antigen . The antigen is usually carbohydrate or protein in genius that is made by the pathogen . When this antigen is shore to the antibody a chain of events is determine off . This result is a very visible reaction making it easier to identify the toxins (Online textbook of Bacteriology , 20072 . Which pathogens that require serological identificationAmong those pathogens that require serological identification are those that produce toxins and especially of more than one kind . For example Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli , helicobacter pylori , cryptosporidium Norwalk-like virus . Serological techniques are also used with species that have unalike serotypes such as Salmonella species . Reactions with antibodies help in recognizeing by different serotypes as they will have different antigens . Clostridium difficile and clostridium perfringens also undergo serological identification (Online casebook of Bacteriology , 20073 . What limitations associated with serological techniquesSerological methods though fast and utmost in trueness and specificity are expensive . The cost of developing them is high . additionally they require expensive reagents which need to be refrigerate . The cost of conducting a serological test is only fairish in most cases when conducted in large numbers pool . This makes it impractical for use in day to day handling of one-on-one patients since it is improbable that many patients will require the techniques unless there is an outbreak4 . The use of Kauffmann white proposal in identification process for salmonella typesThe Kauffman unobjectionable scheme makes it possible to class isolates by determining the surface antigens produced by the bacterium salmonella . The O antigen is determined first then the `H antigen The `O antigen is associated with lipopolysaccharide of the satellite membrane dapple the H is associated with the proteins of the flagella Salmonella typhi have an extra `Vi antigen associated with the capsule Different H antigens exist depending on whether the organism is motile or non-motile . Bacteria can be switched from non-motile states to a motile state , when this happens they activate out of the tube and can be recover from the agar there (Iwen , 20005 . Reporting Procedures for Serological ResultsThe OMG together with the department s medical module approves the way in which reports are worded . When reporting negative results pre-agreed vocabulary that is appropriate for the type of specimen is used . optimistic results are report with compliancy to the organisms grown and the antibiotic sensitivities . let quantification is reported together with the confident(p) or negative results for serological results This is come with by appropriate identification of the levels of the organisms to ensure adequate to(predicate) clinical management . Where necessary additional comments or ranges for reference are added to assist the drug user in take ination (CPA ) UK . Ltd , 2006Section 7 .3e1 . When is it necessary to type gastro-intestinal isolates and what are the techniques involvedIt is necessary to type gastro-intestinal pathogens when the venture pathogens exists in more than one serotype as is the case of salmonella or when the pathogen produces more than one toxin . The various techniques involved include serotyping which basically involves testing antibodies against the organism s antigens to distinguish for a reaction Other techniques that are PCR based include Random Amplified Polymorphic deoxyribonucleic acid (RAPD ) and DNA Amplification fingerprint (DAF . RAPD has been used in typing different strains of E .coli . DAF has been used for typing Salmonella enterica (Daly et al , 2000Section 7 .3f1 . What different ova , cysts and parasites can be seen in faecal samplesParasites normally set in make samples include trophozoites of cryptosporidium , Isospora , Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia Ova of Ascaris lumbricoides , tilt filet species , genus Enterobius vermicularis and arise squirm are also found in faecal samples . Cysts of amebae are also found in human lavatory specimen (Laboratory Corporation of the States , 2007 . HYPERLINK http /network .msu .course .edu /zo1 /316 /alumgut .htm entanglement .msu .course .edu /zo1 /316 /alumgut .htm2 . animation troll of Ascaris lumbricoidesAscaris swelled worms measure close 15 to 35cm with the big(p) male being footlinger than the young-bearing(prenominal) . They are rounded in shape with a debonaire cuticle . The ova is yellowish brown and may be oval- mold or spherical . It has a transparent shell covered by an albuminous turn up . Adult worms reside in the lumen of the small intestine . Eggs produced by the womanish are passed in dejection after which they embryonate and posterior on choke infectious . When the infectious ball are s jettyowed their larvae hatch and enter the mucosa of the small intestine where they are transported to the lungs through admittance and general circulation . When the larvae climb on , they pass through the walls of the alveoli and are coughed out and swallowed so they end up in the small intestine where they grow into grownups (Keas 1999 stopping species life one shotIt is difficult to tell apart tenia saginata from lemniscus solium by examining their ova . Both rain cats and dogs have 3pairs of hooklets and have a striated outer shell . The scolex of the self-aggrandizing Taenia solium has hooklets dapple that of saginata does not have . Additionally , T solium has more striations on its body than T saginata . Both species of fish fillet have a equal life cycle but the Taenia solium can auto infect . In the common life cycle , adult worms are found in the intestine . They lose their proglottids which contain egg . The proglottids are found in feces . When the big(predicate) proglottids separate new ones are formed . The testicle are swallowed by pigs or kine after which the embryo hatches and penetrates the mucosa . This gives them access to blood and they are thus able to rifle in the animals tissues and form cysticerci . When a human being ingests severely cooked pork or kvetch the cysticerci is swallowed and grows into an adult worm in the human intestine . Taenia solium embryo sometimes hatches from the egg in the intestines of humans . They put over the intestinal wall and travel to body tissues in the body forming cysticerci . This is referred to as autoinfection ( HYPERLINK http / web .practicalscience .com / fillet .htm www .practicalscience .com /taenia .htmEnterobius vermicularisE vermicularis adult worms are white , small and threadlike . The female is big than the male and it has a pin shaped posterior end . The eggs are asymmetrically flat on one side . Enterobius vermicularis matures in the large intestine . The gravid female migrates to the perianal electron orbit at night and lays eggs that adhere to the perianal skin . The eggs subsequently embryonate and are infective several hours after deposition on skin . transmission system is via hand to mouth once ingested the eggs release larvae in the small intestine . The worm then migrates to the caecam where it grows into the adult . Reinfection may occur ( HYPERLINK http /www .ncbi .n /m :nih .gov /books /bv .fcgi /rid mmed .section4814G www .ncbi .n /m :nih .gov /books /bv .fcgi /rid mmed .section4814Giardia lambliaCysts of Giardia lamblia begin the life cycle when the cysts are ingested . Trophozoites are released from the cysts and reach maturity in the intestines . As they (trophozoites ) mature they move towards the colon and become cysts again which will later be passed out in dejection Giardia lamblia cysts are oval in shape with mature cysts having four nuclei piece of music girlish ones have two nuclei . The trophozoites are pear shaped with flagella (8 ) and sometimes the sucking disc may be seen in microscopy (Winn and Koneman , 2006Trichuris trichuraThe females produce eggs which are passed in the feces .

They become embryos in soil . When ingested , the embryonated eggs hatch in the small intestine to form infective larvae . The larvae enter the villi and develop into worms which move to blind gut and home run the mucosa as they mature into adults (WHO 1987 . The eggs of Trichuris Trichura are place shaped with two pivotal plugs which remain undefiled in microscopy . The shell of the egg appears yellow brown (Winn and Koneman , 2006 hookwormThe adult hookworm disease is found in the mucosa of the jejunum , the adult lays eggs that are passed out in mickle which hatch into rhabditiform larvae . The rhabditiform larvae later develop into filatiform larvae which penetrate the phalanx through skin . once in the skin , they penetrate into venutes and are transported to the heart and lungs . Once in the lungs they enter the alveoli and go up the respiratory channelise . At this point they are swallowed and later attach to the intestinal mucosa where they grow into maturity (Winn and Koneman , 2006 . diagnosis is mainly based on identifying the egg in stool . It has an oval shape and a thin shellHookworm egg Hookworm adultCryptosporidiumCryptosporidium parvum is a single celled obligate intracellular parasite . Its oocyst , the infective stage is about 3um in size and is usually set by imperviable stain . Cryptosporidium life cycle begins with the sporulated oocysts . These enter the environment via stool of an infected host . Infection happens when the host ingests oocysts . Once in the intestines , the oocyst will release sporozoites Sporozoites invade the epithelium of the intestines they later undergo schizogony after which the sporozoites enter a sexual reproductive stage . In this stage , macrogametes (female ) and microgametes (male develop and at last fertilization occurs leading to fertilized ovum formation The zygote may become a compendious walled oocyst that leaves the host or a thin-walled oocyst that reinfects the host (WHO , 19873 . How do you use a graticule in identifying ova , cysts and parasitesThe graticule is pregnant for sleuthing motile trophozoites , cysts and ova in season numbers as well as erythrocytes and cellular detritus . The graticule is used together with a microscope and enables counting within the field of stare using its calibrations . When precisely adjusted the graticule is used for proper visual image of cysts , ova and parasites4 . What spot procedures are used on fecal samplesFecal samples undergo various detection techniques such as trichrome spot , modified trichrome staining , fluorescent staining haematoxylin stain , modified acid-fast staining and immunoassay staining techniques (Allen et al ,1970 . Haematoxylin and eosin staining is used in identification of Taenia species . The trichrome staining method is the most common with higher(prenominal) reports of success especially in identification of helminthes and protozoa5 . What meanness techniques are used on fecal samples Concentration procedures are done as part of the examination for parasites . They allow organisms that would other be missed to be detected . When used with parafix collection vials , OCP provides a method that is convenient and reproducible for parasite detection . formol and OCP are added to the fecal samples , mixed and allowed to stand for a while before the sample is process . Other techniques include the use of formalin-ethyl acetate . Water-ether concentration is also used and is especially heavy when enumeration of oocysts is postulate as well as sagaciousness of visibility (Allen et al , 1970 weber et al 19921 . Describe identification and toxigenicity testing of conynebacterium diptheriaeC diptheriae is a Gram positive pleomorphic rod with fermentative characteristics and clubbed ends . Presumptive identification has the followers characteristics , a positive reaction for reduction of catalase nitrate , production of cystinase and fermentation of glucose and malt sugar . C diptheriae grows on nutrient agar with potassium tellurite serum and blood improving growth . Toxigenic species are identified by their different biochemical reactions . invalidating reactions for the fermentation of sucrose , timberlandland sugar , urease and pyrazinamide also help to tell apart biotypes . volt-ampere intermedius requires lipids for optimal growth (Gorbach , 2007 . Toxigenicity is tested by PCR technique to detect the tox gene which is verified by a phenotypic test2 . Why are orthopedic samples handle differently to most other tissue samplesOrthopedic samples are treated differently from other tissue samples due to the fact that they are not easy to obtain vizors for this . In addition , due to the profoundly seated nature of fancy up , deep samples and superficial samples often reveal different organisms or different degrees of infection3 . Why should good science laboratory techniques be used when investigate possible post-orthopedic mental process infectionPost-orthopaedic surgery infection often take long to manifest and when samples are obtained they need to be handled with great care . This ensures that the depth of the infection can be estimated as correctly as possible . Additionally , if good laboratory techniques are not discovered the possibility of lose an infective pathogen is likely which will lead to poor outgrowth in the surgery1 . Tests used to identify pathogensStaphylococcus aurensStaphylococcus aureus is identified by the Gram stain and microscopy It is a positive bacterium that occurs in clusters resembling grapes . It is positive for the catalase test and is also coagulase positive . Other tests include fermentation of glucose and mannitol which differentiates it from S . epidermidis . S . aureas forms halcyon yellow colonies on agar (Winn and Koneman , 2006Beta- haemolytic streptococciBeta-hemolytic streptococci are gram positive bacteria that occur in chains . It is identified by the Bacitracin sensitivity test in which beta hemolytic streptococci when tested in discs of 0 .025IU Bacitracin forms a district of inhibition slightly the disc (Mondlar and Kelkar , 1982ColiformsColiforms are bacteria that are used to indicate the level of fecal pollution in natural water . They are enumerated through membrane filtration . antibiotic drug resistance epitome is also used to fingerprint isolates so that they can be matched to other fingerprints of fecal coliforms from already know sources (Whitlock et al , 2002Pseudomonas speciesPseudomonas is identified based on Gram morphology , it is a negative rod . Other characteristics of its presumptive identification include the unfitness to ferment glucose , reaction that is positive for oxidase . Pseudomonas also has a loco odor and can grow at 420 C . wee identification ofaeuroginosa is aided by fluorescence under uv light (Online Textbook of Bacteriology , 2007Clostridium perfringensClostridium perfringens is a spore forming gram-positive , rod-shaped and anaerobic bacteria clostridium identified by the Nagler reaction . In this reaction C perfringens acts on phospholipase in egg vitellus fair For a positive test its zones of turbidity echo its colonies . The effect is inhibited when C .perfringens antiserum with of import antitoxin is found on the medium (Online Textbook of Bacteriology , 2007Bacteroides fragilisBacteriodes fragilis is an obligate anaerobe . It is identified by blackening of bile esculin agar . Bile esculin agar contains esculin bile , protohemin , ferric ammonium citrate and gentamicin in a trypticase soja bean agar base . The growth of the organism uses up bile and hydrolyses esculin1 . What is the significance of seeing spirochetes in Vincent s stained slidesSpirochetes when seen in Vincent s stained slides are indicative of the bacteria Borrelia vincentii . When the are large numbers of Gram-negative rods that appear spiral-like the test is positive for Borrelia vincentii the precipitating(prenominal) organism for Vincent s angina ( threadbares Unit Evaluations and Standards Laboratory , 2007Section 6 .61 . What are the principles of tone of part bureau you can interpret in a timber assurance reportThe information generated from the laboratory in a step assurance report should be accurate by following guidelines in the procedure manual , concerning tolerance units , acceptability of specimen preparation of reagents and the correct calculations . reliableness is another principle that is unfree on the use of well qualified force for the various complexities of work , writing of reports on prescribed forms and postcode of disciplinal actions as well as reporting anomalies to supervisorsReproducibility is also a principle of fibre assurance . It ensures that high quality results can be obtained more than one time hence making them highly credible (WHO , 20061 . What are internal quality lead , external quality opinion random magisterial fractures mean , SD , CV , imprecision , inaccuracy and biasWhere X mean n number of values ValueCV is the coefficient of variation and provides measure of variability It can be used in semblance of methods which generate different units It is obtained by dividing standards deviation by the mean and presenting as a persona by multiplying by 100Imprecision refers to errors resulting from compromised standards for example using a bothersome lens or ailing(predicate) prepared reagents . It results in opinionated errors . Inaccuracy is those errors that result form mover that have been facility poorly or that are defective resulting in harm readings (Medialab inc , 2008Bias refers to a situation where the testing process is altered often by a systematic error causing the results to a refutation of the true facts (Medialab inc , 20081 . Explain the use of Westgard Rules and impose Jennings plotsWestgard rules are important for definition or performance limits for an assay . They are and so useful in detection of random and systematic errors . They rules are in two sets , trine warning rules and three involve rules . The warning rules when violated creation the review of calibration of equipment , test procedures and reagents use . Mandatory results are important in decision making whether to reject serum samples of a patient in an assy . Levy Jennings plots display in pictural means the assay values of replicate control against time . When a control point is found outside the /-2SD line , the patients results cannot be reported because they are considered `out of control . When they fall within the cover lines they are considered `in control and can thus be reported (Medialab Inc , 20081 . What are the role and requirements of accreditation by CPA (UK ) ltdCPA (UK ) Ltd is the main accreditation body for medical laboratories in the UK . It has the role of ensuring that laboratories meet the required standards to ensure high quality work and promotion of quality health services the patients . The accreditation requirements of CPA are classified into set standards the shaping and quality management system , the personnel , set out and environment , equipment , materials and information systems , the process of examination , pre-examination process and post examination processes . The laboratory is required to provide curtilage of quality in the management system , of qualified personnel and adequate staffing records that show the quality management system is effective and say of properly functioning equipment and a suitable working environment (CPA (UK ) Ltd , 20062 . Describe the different roles of the master and regulatory organization , for biomedical students such as IBMS , NPC and what is the relevancy to paid practiceProfessional and regulatory organizations for biomedical students are necessary and have the responsibility of maintaining high standards of schoolmaster training and professional conduct in biomedicine . IBMS awards certificates of competence to biomedicine students and enables the students to account with HPC . IBMS also appoints verifiers , assess schoolman qualifications and approves laboratories for training of students before they ensure . These organizations are relevant to the professional practice because they ensure professionalism is enhance and maintained by allowing only competent biomedicine students join the organizationsReferencesAllen AV , Ridley DS , Further observations on the formol-ether concentration technique for faecal parasites . J Clin Pathol . 1970 Sep 23 (6 :545-546Brasitus TA , Parasites and Malabsorption J Clin Gastroenterol , 1983 12 (2 :495-510CPA (UK ) Ltd . Standards for the Medical Laboratory retrieved from HYPERLINK http /www .nuh .nhs .uk /qmc /microbiology /Staff /Policies 20 20Procedures polity 20for 20Reporting 20Results .doc http /www .nuh .nhs .uk /qmc /microbiology /Staff /Policies 20 20Procedures /P olicy 20for 20Reporting 20Results .docHYPERLINK http /www .ngrl .org .uk /Manchester /Downloads / woodland 20Management /Cheryl _Blair .ppt CPA (UK )Ltd Integrated experience retrieved from HYPERLINK http /www .ngrl .org .uk /Manchester /Downloads / prize 20Management /Cheryl _Blair .ppt www .ngrl .org .uk /Manchester /Downloads /Quality 20Management /Cheryl_Blair .p ptFinegold S (ed : centenary symposium on anaerobes : A recital to Andre Veillon . Clin Infect Dis 18 :5-245 , 1994Goldin , Lichtenstein AH , Gorbach SL : The role of the intestinal flora . p500 . ME , four-year-old VR (eds : Modern aliment in Health and Disease lea Febriger , Philadelphia , 1994Gorbach S , 2007 Microbiology of the gastrointestinal tract retrieved from HYPERLINK http /www .merckmanulas .com www .merckmanulas .comHealth Protection Agency , 2007 Processing of bowel movement for Clostridium difficile National Standard regularity BSOP 10 thing 1 retrieved from HYPERLINK http /www .hpa-standardmethods .org .uk /pdf_sops .asp www .hpa-standardmethods .org .uk /pdf_sops .aspKeas B , 1999 Ascaris lumbricoides life cycle Retrieved from HYPERLINK http /www .msu .edu /course /zol /316 /alumgut .htm http /www .msu .edu /course /zol /316 /alumgut .htmLaboratory acknowledgement of Parasites of humans Health fill , CDC retrieved from ( HYPERLINK http /www .dpd .cdc .gov /dpdx /HTML /Cryptosporidiosis .htm http /www .dpd .cdc .gov /dpdx /HTML /Cryptosporidiosis .htmLaboratory Identification of Parasites of universal Health Concern , CDC retrieved from (http /www .dpd .cdc .gov /dpdx /HTML /Cryptosporidiosis .htmMondkar AD , Kelkar SS , The bacitracin sensitivity test for identifying beta-hemolytic streptococci of Lancefield group A . J Postgrad MedNeisseria Gonorrhea , Online Textbook of Bacteriology retrieved from HYPERLINK http /www .textbookofbacteriology .net www .textbookofbacteriology .netNeisseria identification retrieved from HYPERLINK http /www .genprobe .com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf www .genprobe .com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdfPractical Parasitology retrieved from HYPERLINK http /www .practicalscience .com /taenia .html www .practicalscience .com /taenia .htmlSimon GL , Gorbach SL , 1995 : Normal alimentary tract microflora . p53 in Blaser MJStatistical information from MedialabnInc retrieved from HYPERLINK http /www .medialabinc .net /index www .medialabinc .net /indexWHO , 2006 Quality authorisation in clinical MicrobiologyWorld Health Organization : taproom and control of intestinal parasitical infections . WHO Tech Rep Ser 749 , 1987Winn CW and Koneman EW , 2006 Kolemans colouration Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology , Lippincot Williams and Wilkins ISBNPAGEPAGE 13 ...If you necessity to get a full essay, order it on our website: Orderessay

If you want to get a full information about our service, visit our page: How it works.